Monitoring Institutions on Printing Houses and Book Publishing
During the Hamidian Era, strict regulations governed printing houses and book publishing in the Ottoman territories. Those seeking to establish printing houses needed a license from the Ministry of Internal Affairs, with a commitment not to produce materials against the Sultan and state interests. Covert passages in printing houses were forbidden, and inspections could be conducted by Ministry of Education and municipal police. Printing house owners had to provide information about their tools and equipment upon request.
Publishing any book required a formal license from the Ministry of Education. Importing foreign publications or related items also needed licenses. Itinerant book vendors were regulated, and street sales of newspapers were controlled.
An amendment to Article 29 made anyone possessing prohibited publications an accomplice. In 1895, even stricter regulations were introduced.
In 1857, books needed approval from the Council of Education before publication. In 1881, this responsibility shifted to the Council of Inspection and Monitoring, which assessed foreign press content entering the country. This committee grew from seven members to 59 in 1907, with various roles.
Recognizing limitations, the Commission for Reviewing Written Works was established in 1897. In 1903, the Committee of Religious Books emerged. These bodies reassessed approved publications, expanding the censorship workforce to 75 individuals.
Council of Education (Meclis-i Maarif)
The Education Council (Meclis-i Maarif) was established in 1846 to oversee education and authorize printing houses and printed materials. Its role expanded beyond education, as it also controlled printing establishments, as detailed in the 1857 Printing Regulations.
In 1869, the Regulation of General Education (Maarif-i Umumiye Nizamnamesi) defined the Ministry of Education’s structure and jurisdiction. It split the Grand Council (Meclis-i Kebir) into two departments: the Department of Science handled books and materials for schools, while the Department of Administration oversaw printing houses.
The Ministry of Education maintained its authority over licensing printed works in various regulations from 1857 to 1895, including those during the Hamidian Era. License applications were reviewed and decided upon by relevant units within the Ministry of Education.
Copyright and Translation Committee (Telif ve Tercüme Heyeti)
The Copyright and Translation Committee (Telif ve Tercüme Heyeti), established in 1865 under the Ministry of Education, oversaw book content. Initially thought to replace the Association of Science, its primary role was translating beneficial foreign-language books into Turkish. However, it had a short existence, and a new translation institution was established in 1870. This institution also licensed translations from private printing houses, censoring them after a comprehensive examination.
In the Hamidian Era, the revived Copyright and Translation Committee began pre-printing book evaluations. The book publication process started with an application to the Ministry of Education. The committee would review the content, and if no objections were found, a provisional license was issued. After printing, a thorough assessment ensured conformity with the approved manuscript, and final printing approval followed.
Council of Inspection and Monitoring (Encümen-i Teftiş ve Muayene)
During the Hamidian Era in the late Ottoman Empire, there was a flourishing and dynamic period for the press. This era was marked by the establishment of new schools, the promotion of ideas that had developed since the Tanzimat period, and the propaganda efforts of opposition movements. However, it also saw strict control over works with political and religious content, leading to the emergence of various institutions tasked with enforcing this control.
One of these institutions was the Council of Inspection and Monitoring (Encümen-i Teftiş ve Muayene), established in 1881 under the Ministry of Education. This council played a significant role in censorship, as indicated by the Turkish term “teftiş ve muayene,” which translates to “inspection and monitoring.” It was responsible for evaluating copyright and translation works requested for publication and making decisions regarding their approval. The council’s purpose was to review applications from individuals seeking to publish works on various subjects and determine whether licenses should be granted.
The Council of Inspection and Monitoring’s mandate included examining the contents of books and treatises intended for licensed production, assessing them for issues related to religion, morality, etiquette, and politics. It merged the functions of the Copyright and Translation Council, which had not yet become operational, with those of the printing house administration. In addition to overseeing printing and publication, it also had responsibilities related to school and library inspections.
During a period of robust press and publication activity in the late Ottoman Empire, the Council played a crucial role until the declaration of the Constitutional Monarchy. It evaluated publications not covered by customs and post office officials and supervised various aspects of media operations, including printing inspectors, bookstores, and libraries. It also provided opinions on applications received from central and provincial offices by the Ministry of Education.
Individuals seeking to print books had to submit petitions to the Ministry of Education, which would then refer the works to the Council of Inspection and Monitoring. If the council found the work suitable, a temporary license was issued, followed by a separate license for publication, ultimately allowing for book distribution. When printing religious books, an additional application was made to the Shakyh-al-Islam authority for an opinion.
Initially established with a chairman and six members in 1881, the Council’s personnel expanded over the years. By 1907, it had grown to include a chairman, forty-five members, five inspection officers, a customs and post office censor, and seven inspectors proficient in various languages, totaling fifty-nine members. This increase reflected both an increased workload and intensified governmental oversight over media operations.
The Council of Inspection and Monitoring’s role involved reviewing books and journals referred to it and either approving their publication or ordering their destruction if they were deemed harmful. In cases where harmful material was identified, the decision was made to “destroy and obliterate” the work, effectively erasing it from existence.
The late Ottoman Empire saw the development of legal regulations for press and publication, beginning with the 1857 Printing Regulation and continuing with subsequent regulations during the Hamidian Era. These regulations defined the legal boundaries and guidelines for the field, with the establishment of various institutions to enforce and oversee compliance. This period marked significant legal and institutional advancements, solidifying comprehensive control over the domain.
The establishment of the Council of Inspection and Monitoring was proposed in 1881 by Ali Fuad Bey, the Minister of Education, who recognized the ineffectiveness of existing departments. This council was envisioned as an “academy-like” entity responsible for assessing works in terms of religion, ethics, etiquette, and politics. Comprising seventeen personnel, including a chief, five members, six inspectors, and five clerks, the council oversaw books, magazines, and libraries not subject to inspection by customs and post office officials.
The Council’s duties were divided into scientific and political responsibilities. Scientific duties required members to possess knowledge, virtue, and scholarly maturity akin to European academies. They were tasked with rectifying unsuitable materials produced by emerging literary figures, which included translations and excerpts from detrimental European works. The political responsibility involved supervising books and journals seeking licenses, ensuring their adherence to the principles of “religion, morality, decorum, and politics” as outlined in the founding directive.
Criticism of the Council of Inspection and Monitoring emerged both domestically and in foreign media. Some critics argued that the council was inconsistent in its treatment of licensed works. Over time, these criticisms transformed into a central concern for the Ottoman administration, especially as press censorship intensified. The Young Turk publications of that era also voiced dissatisfaction with the council’s handling of licensed works, openly criticizing the Sublime Porte.
To fulfill its diverse roles, the Council needed individuals proficient in various languages and fields of knowledge. This led to the inclusion of people from different nationalities and backgrounds, often recruited strategically to ensure their loyalty to the caliphate and sultanate. Some recruits had criminal records and were effectively compelled to reside within the imperial hub. The council also had members with espionage inclinations, who were placed within the institution to provide espionage insights into other officials, placing the censors under supervision and control.
In 1897, Farukizade Abdullah Hasib Efendi was appointed to head the Council, with a mandate to identify and rectify operational issues. He viewed the council’s responsibilities as both scientific and political. Scientifically, it needed to possess knowledge and methodical dedication similar to European academies. Politically, it had to rectify unsuitable materials produced by emerging literary figures and ensure adherence to principles in works seeking publication licenses. The late Ottoman Empire thus witnessed a period of significant censorship and control over press and publication, with the Council of Inspection and Monitoring playing a pivotal role in shaping the intellectual and literary landscape of the time. This era of control persisted until the Constitutional Monarchy was declared on July 23, 1908.
Directors of the General Directorate of Press: Censors
The Press Administration Office functioned as a directorate from 1862 to 1918. During this period, it had various affiliations, initially with the Ministry of Education in 1870, later with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1877, and also with the Ministry of Interior. After 1913, it continued as the General Directorate until 1922 when the Ottoman monarchy was abolished in Istanbul. The identities of the press directors can be ascertained from the State Almanacs.
| Tanzimat Era (1862 – 1877) | |||
| Name | Dates | Title | Ministry |
| Sakızlı Ohannes Pasha | 1862 – 1868 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Education |
| Abdullah Macit Bey | 1868 – 1872 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Foreign Affairs |
| Mehmet Nüzhet Bey | 1873 – 1873 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Foreign Affairs |
| Tahsin Efendi | 1873 – 1874 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Foreign Affairs |
| Konstantin Kalyadi Efendi | 1875 – 1875 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Foreign Affairs |
| Mehmet Said Bey | 1875 – 1876 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Foreign Affairs |
| Osman Hamdi Bey | 1876 – 1876 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Foreign Affairs |
| Eduard Black Bey | 1876 – 1877 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Foreign Affairs |
| Hamidian Era (1877 – 1908) | |||
| Abdullah Macit Bey (second time) | 1877 – 1878 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Internal Affairs |
| Pertev Efendi | 1878 – 1879 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Internal Affairs |
| Mehmet Şevki Efendi | 1880 – 1888 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Internal Affairs |
| Ahmet Arifî Bey | 1888 – 1892 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Internal Affairs |
| Yusuf Behçet Bey | 1892 – 1901 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Internal Affairs |
| İbrahim Hıfzı Bey | 1901 – 1905 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Internal Affairs |
| Ebulmukbil Kemal Bey | 1905 – 1908 | Director of Internal Press | Ministry of Internal Affairs |
Sakızlı Ohannes Pasha (1830 – 1912): After completing his education at the Armenian Raphaelian School in Paris, Sakızlı Ohannes Pasha returned to Istanbul and embarked on his career as a translator at the Sublime Porte. He is acknowledged as one of the early proponents of economic liberalism in the Ottoman Empire, emphasizing the significance of property rights and individual economic freedom for economic development. Additionally, Ohannes Pasha made significant contributions to academia, teaching at the School of Finance and authoring the groundbreaking book “Mebad-i Ilmi Serveti Milel” (Scientific Foundations of National Wealth), considered the first classical economics text in the Ottoman Empire. Beyond his economic pursuits, he also had interests in art and philology, even publishing a book titled “Fünun-u Nefise Tarih-i Medhali” (Introduction to the History of Fine Arts), which was based on his lectures at the School of Fine Arts. During his retirement, he continued his philological and lexicographical studies.
Abdullah Macit Bey (1841 – 1917): Abdullah Macit Bey initially received his education in military schools, eventually attaining the rank of captain in the army before transitioning to a career in the Sublime Porte. Serving twice as the Director of Press, first during the Tanzimat Era and later during the Hamidian Era, he advocated for strict censorship policies, even recommending the prohibition of humor magazines in a report he prepared.
Mehmet Nüzhet Efendi (1828 – 1877): After working as a civil servant in the Ministry of Finance and contributing as a writer for the official newspaper, “Takvim-i Vekayi,” Mehmet Nüzhet Efendi assumed a role at the Directorate of Press. Despite his relatively short life, he authored various poems and prose works.
Tahsin Efendi: Limited information is available about Tahsin Efendi, but it is known that he managed the state printing house before becoming the Press Manager.
Konstantin Kalyadi Efendi: Konstantin Kalyadi Efendi graduated from the Istanbul Greek School, pursued legal studies in Paris, and earned a doctorate in law. Upon returning to the Ottoman Empire, he joined the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and served as a chargé d’affaires in Bucharest.
Mehmet Said Bey (1848 – 1921): Mehmet Said Bey, who acquired proficiency in German and French during his father’s diplomatic tenure in Berlin, initiated his civil service career as the Private Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Subsequently, he assumed the role of Director of Press. Mehmet Said Bey actively contributed by writing articles responding to foreign press criticisms of the Ottoman Empire, often using French in the “Journale de Constantinople.”
Osman Hamdi Bey (1848 – 1910): Osman Hamdi Bey, the last Press Director of the Tanzimat period, emerged as a prominent figure advocating for Westernization and reforms within the Ottoman Empire. Despite being initially sent to Paris for law studies, he pursued his passion for painting, art history, and archaeology at the School of Fine Arts. His tenure as Director of Press was brief, as he devoted a significant portion of his life to archaeological studies, establishing Istanbul’s first archaeological museum, and continuing his career as a painter.
Eduard Black Bey (Edouard Blacque) (1824 – 1895): Eduard Black Bey, originally from France, hailed from a distinguished lineage with his grandfather being a renowned lawyer who defended Louis XVI during the French Revolution. After his education in Paris, Eduard returned to Istanbul and commenced his career at the Sublime Porte Translation Office. Following extensive diplomatic assignments in Paris, Naples, and Washington, he assumed the position of Director of Press upon his return to Istanbul. However, his tenure was short-lived, as he left the post when Abdulhamid II came to power, initiating stricter press control policies (Iskit, 1943: 55-62).
Pertev Efendi: Pertev Efendi served during the early Hamidiye period censorship when the Press Directorate was under the Ministry of Internal Affairs. It is likely that Pertev Bey held a civil service position within the Ministry of Internal Affairs during this time.
Mehmet Şevki Efendi: Information about Mehmet Şevki Efendi is scarce, and not much is known about his tenure, which coincided with changes in the Press Law.
Ahmet Arifî Bey (1855 – 1908): After serving as a civil servant in various provinces, including Rumelia and Syria, Ahmet Arifî Bey initially assumed the role of censor at the Encümeni Inspection and Inspection Office in Istanbul. Later, he became the Director of Press but was subsequently reassigned to provincial posts, likely as an exile.
Yusuf Behçet Bey (1848 – 1936): Yusuf Behçet Bey, known for his multilingual proficiency and civil service background, worked at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs before joining the Sublime Porte Translation Office. His diplomatic assignments included positions in London and St. Petersburg, culminating in his decade-long tenure as Director of Press, overseeing a period marked by intense censorship during the Hamidian Era.
Ibrahim Hıfzı Bey (1862 – 1905): Ibrahim Hıfzı Bey’s educational background is not well-documented, but records indicate he received a state medal. According to memoirs by Tokgöz, he was known for his meticulous and strict approach to censorship, personally reviewing numerous works. Ebulmukbil Kemal Bey: Limited information is available about Ebulmukbil Kemal Bey, although it is believed he hailed from the Romanian province, given his proficiency in Romanian. Initially, he wrote feuilleton romans but later engaged with Young Turks circles in Romania. Speculations exist about his role as an informer among the Young Turks, supported by his appointment as Press Director upon his return to Istanbul and his implementation of stringent censorship measures. He was subsequently exiled to Tripoli following the 1908 Young Turk revolution.