Lists of Prohibited Books
The basis of the information on the books banned during the reign of Abdülhamid is based on three lists. The first is the list of banned books dated 1900 titled Memalik-i Mahrusa-i Şahaneye Duhul ve İntisarı Memnu Bulunan Kütüb and Risail-i Muzırranın Esamisini Mübeyyin Cedveldir (“Catalog of Restricted Books and Journals Denied Entry and Distribution within the Sacred Imperial Territories”). The second one is a list of banned books which were confiscated to be burned in 29 March 1902. Finally, the third document is another list of books which were burned, dated 24 May 1902, which was presented to the Sublime Porte by the Minister of Education. The second and third lists are located within the Ottoman archives and have been published by Fatmagül Demirel. Moreover, numerous correspondence documents discovered in the Ottoman archives, including those from the Ministries of Education, Internal Affairs, Foreign Affairs, and Inland Security, reveal that even though they were not explicitly mentioned in the aforementioned lists, many books and journals were confiscated by officials on the grounds of being harmful. Based on this correspondence, it is possible that there might exist additional catalogs or lists of harmful books that have not yet been documented. Furthermore, some of the correspondence regarding books considered harmful predates the publication of the 1900 and 1902 lists, indicating the potential existence of earlier lists.
In the Catalog of Restricted Books from 1900, a total of 1,125 books are listed in nine different languages. The largest category among these is French, comprising 486 books, followed by Greek with 224 titles. Turkish books form the third largest group, with 136 publications. Other language groups are given as follows: 96 in Russian, 81 in English, 41 in Arabic, 38 in Armenian, 14 in Italian, and nine in German. Upon examining the categories of books, it becomes evident that they primarily consist of literature, history, law, and philosophy books. While the specific reasons for the ban on these books are not provided in the lists, some inferences can be made about the types of publications that were targeted by examining their subject matter.
Notably, a majority of the books listed as burned in the 1902 decision of the Council of Inspection and Monitoring are works of Ottoman writers and poets. Among the banned works are contributions from many prominent writers and poets of the Tanzimat Era, including figures such as Abdülhak Hamid Tarhan, Ziya Pasha, Namık Kemal, and Ahmed Mithad Efendi.
The list also encompasses some classical works of the Oriental and Islamic world, as well as anonymous folk tales. Examples of these include famous romantic epics such as Fuzuli’s Leyla and Majnun and Nizami Ganjavi’s Heft Peyker (Seven Portraits), poems of Persian poet Hafez-e Shirazi named The Divan of Hafez, and Evliya Çelebi’s travelogue called Seyahatname (Book of Travel). Additionally, there are anonymous folk tales such as the mythical creature Shahmaran (The King of Snakes), a 16th century Turkish-Azerbaijani love story named Kerem and Aslı, the story of Prophet Joseph and his wife, named Yusuf and Zulaikha, 14th century Persian series of tales called Tutinama (Tales of a Parrot), a Turkish-Azerbaijani epic story called Köroğlu (Koroglou, the Son of the Blind), traditional Turkish shadow play called Karagöz (Karagöz and Hacivat, or Karagiosis), satirical and humorous tales of Nasreddin Hodja, the epic story of semi mythical hero Battal Gazi (Seyyid Battal Ghazi), and the epic story of the Battle of Khaybar (Hayber Kalesi).
Among the literary works in the list, there are also texts that were either translated or adapted from French literature. For instance, Ziya Pasha’s adaptation of Molière’s Tartuffe was published under the title “Riyanın Encamı”, (which translates to “the outcome of lying”). Another notable adaptation from French literature is “Lü’lü-i Asfer” by Ahmed Midhad Efendi, although the original title of Georges Pradalie’s work remains unidentified. Additionally, Ahmet Vefik Pasha’s translation of Les Aventures de Télémaque, fils d’Ulysse by François Fénelon is included in the list under the title “Telemak”.
After the literary works, the list encompasses books on Islamic sciences and Islamic history, primarily in Arabic. It also includes publications related to Armenian history and the Armenian question, as well as books concerning Balkan countries like Greece, Albania, Macedonia, and Bulgaria. Furthermore, it features historical volumes that delve into the histories of various states such as Russia and France, along with works on the history of the Inquisition, the history of Andalusia, Medieval Artifacts, a fortune-telling book known as Yıldızname (meaning “the Book of Stars”), and a booklet of recipes.
Archival documents reveal that some books, although not explicitly listed as banned, were still deemed harmful by civil servants. Consequently, these books were either confiscated from bookshops or denied entry into the country by customs officials. A notable example of this is the case of One Thousand and One Nights. According to a report dated June 22, 1898, from Baghdad, a copy of this book was considered harmful and was consequently denied entry into the country, being returned to its country of origin. In July 1902, a Spanish translation of the same book, which had been printed and published in Salonica, was deemed harmful and subsequently confiscated.
Prohibited French Books
Among the prohibited literary works, there exist both enduring classics of world literature and lesser-known pieces. These banned works collectively represent a diverse list of themes. In the realm of banned authors and their significant works, Victor Hugo comes in the first place with ten of his literary creations blacklisted, including Quatrevingt-treize, Histoire d’un crime, Les Misérables, Napoleon III, Poems, Dieu, Odes et Ballades, Pendant l’exil, Religions et Religion, and Le Pape. The themes of Hugo’s works cover a wide range of topics that were considered harmful by Ottoman authorities.
Quatrevingt-treize is a narrative set against the backdrop of the French Revolution, discussing the themes of justice, heroism, and war. Likewise, Les Misérables discusses of social injustice, redemption, and the trials faced by the impoverished in 19th-century France. Histoire d’un crime offers Hugo’s personal account of his political exile during the reign of Napoleon III, shedding light on the political climate of the era and the examination of Napoleon III’s rule. Pendant l’exil provides further insights into Hugo’s experiences and reflections during his political exile. In Dieu, Hugo argues the notion of evil. In parallel, Religions et Religion and Le Pape serve as critical examinations of organized religion, accompanied by a defense of belief in God. Finally, Odes et Ballades is a series of poems reflecting the author’s evolution towards political liberalism.
Turning to Jules Verne’s works, Kéraban le têtu and L’Archipel en feu were banned due to their stories unfolding within the Ottoman Empire. In Kéraban le têtu, the tale revolves around a Turkish tobacco merchant named Kéraban, who adamantly refuses to pay a tax for crossing the Bosphorus Strait, opting instead to circumnavigate the Black Sea to reach Scutari from Constantinople (from European side to the Asian side of Bosphorus). The second novel, L’Archipel en feu, is set against the backdrop of the Greek War of Independence.
Another French author, Pierre Loti, known for his orientalist novels, also had four of his works enlisted among the banned. Aziadé unfolds as a love story between a French officer (Loti himself) and a Turkish-Muslim woman named Aziadé. Fantôme d’Orient is the sequel to Aziadé, with the French officer returning to Constantinople after a decade-long absence in search of his lover. Au Maroc is the story of a journey on a horseback through Morocco, providing a travelogue of Loti’s experiences. L’exilée centers on the life of Queen Elisabeth of Romania, due to its supposed criticism of Ottoman policies towards the Balkans and Romania. Lastly, Le Mariage de Loti, an autobiographical novel, was enlisted, despite its narrative being set not in the Ottoman lands but in Tahiti.
Additional notable works on the list include Madame de Staël’s Le Directoire: Considérations sur la revolution française, as given in the title, due to its discussions on the outcomes of the French Revolution. Marquis de Sade’s La Philosophie dans le Boudoir and Les Œuvres were probably banned within the frame of obscenity. Alexandre Dumas’ Les Borgia is another popular novel enlisted. The well-known fables of Jean de La Fontaine’s Les Contes, may have been banned due to moral sentiments.
Two noteworthy exceptions are books originally written in languages other than French but categorized as such. The first one is Dante’s La Divina Commedia, a renowned Italian classic. Similarly, Lord Byron’s Le Corsaire, though not originally penned in French, narrates the tale of a pirate navigating the Aegean Sea to plunder a Pacha’s possessions, considered among French literary works.
Another important category comprises memoirs and travelogues penned by travelers and orientalists, containing their observations and insights into life and culture within Ottoman territories. It is evident that many aspects of Western observers’ narratives and interpretations concerning Ottoman daily life, customs, and religion were deemed unsettling and inappropriate within Ottoman councils. This group encompasses works such as Chopin’s France and Liban, Baron Amaury’s L’Orient et L’Europe, Barker’s Extrême Orient, Gaston and Guillius’s Constantinople, and Maury’s Aux Portes d’Orient.
Examining the sphere of philosophy, it is seen that various Enlightenment philosophers and writers were banned. Among them, J. J. Rousseau’s Contrat Social and De l’Inégalité, Voltaire’s Histoire de Charles XII, Le Fanatisme, Dictionnaire Philosophique, Correspondences, and Histoire de Russie, Montesquieu’s Lettres Persanes, La Terre Sainte, Esprit de Lois, Etienne de la Boétie’s La Servitude Volontaire, and Alfieri’s De la Tyrannie were banned. Besides, Machiavelli’s Le Prince, and Latin classics like Cicero’s De la République and La Catilinariæ are mentioned in the category of books in French.
Regarding historical books, the most prominent theme revolves around those related to nations and ethnic groups living in the Ottoman territories of the time. Given the empire’s disintegration process, the most contentious subjects are the histories of regions like Greece, the Balkans, the Levant, and North Africa, including the struggles for independence during that era. Geography books and maps delineating Ottoman territories within the boundaries of newly-formed or aspiring nation-states were also regarded as problematic in this context.
Regarding the Armenian question, numerous works were banned, including La nation arménienne, son passé, son présent, son avenir politique et religieux, Martyrologe arménien, and Armenie, Kurdistan, Mésopotamie. A second problematic region from the official Ottoman point of view is Levant, Middle East, and North Africa. Books titled Jérusalem et la Judée, Afrique, Palestine, France et Liban, Vers le Nil français, En Palestine, En Egypt, Voyage en Palestine, Orient: Syrie, Palestine, Syrie, Palestine, Mont-Athos, Les échelles du Levant, Algérie conquise, and Baghdad fall into this category. For the Balkans, it is seen that books such as Chez les Grecs de la Turquie: le pays et les mœurs, Le Balkan slave et la crise autrichienne, Macédoine, De Thessalie en Crète, Les Grecs, Les Valaques et les Albanais et l’Empire, La Grèce en 1893, Histoire de la Grèce, and La Bulgarie were enlisted.
Several studies focusing directly on Ottoman history and the lives of sultans were also subject to prohibition. Among these, the most significant is Histoire de l’Empire Ottoman by the prominent historian Hammer, as well as another work by Hammer titled Bosphore. Additional titles in this category comprise Mourad V by Comte de Kératry, Bayazid by Jean Racine, Histoire de Turquie by Alfonse de Lamartine, and La Turquie d’aujourd’hui et d’avant 40 ans and La Turquie démasquée by Ármin Vámbéry, a Hungarian Turcologist.
Furthermore, matters related to religions and the history of religions, particularly Islam, were also subject to prohibition by the Ottoman authorities. Notable among the banned works are La Clef du Coran by François Bourgade and Koran by Albin de Biberstein Kazimirski.
In the case of the list of books destroyed by burning, due to the Council of Inspection and Monitoring’s decision in 1902, some Ottoman Turkish/Turkish translations of French books can be identified. These translations include Riyanın Encamı, written by Ziya Pasha, which is an adaptation of Moliere’s play Tartuffe. There’s also Telemak, translated from Fénélon by Ahmet Vefik Pasha, Michel Zevaco’s novel L’Épopée d’Amour, translated into Turkish by Abdülhak Hamid under the title Macera-yı Aşk, and a Georges Pradalie novel translated by Ahmed Midhad Efendi with the name Lü’lü-i Asfer. Additionally, a medieval history book translated from Victor Duruy by Ahmed Tevfik Pasha under the name Tarih-i Mücmel-i Kurun-ı Vusta (which means Extended History of the Middle Ages), was among the books that were burned.
Examining the themes prevalent in the banned books offers valuable insights into the motivations behind Ottoman authorities’ censorship practices. It becomes evident that their primary objective was to prevent the dissemination of certain intellectual movements and debates originating in the West from infiltrating the country. Notably, the Ottoman authorities sought to curtail the influence of republicanism, which emerged in the wake of the French Revolution. They also aimed to suppress discussions challenging absolutist political authority, engaging in debates regarding social equality and inequality, and exploring concepts like freedom and democracy. These themes gained prominence during a period when the absolute authority of the sultan was being questioned internally, and the notion of constitutionalism was taking root.
Simultaneously, as the Ottoman Empire underwent a tumultuous transformation in its political structure, akin to modernization, society grappled with the complexities of cultural modernization. The authorities, in response, exhibited a desire to exert control over social life in the face of this cultural shift, resulting in restrictions on religious and cultural matters. Consequently, topics such as traditional-religious authority, religious lifestyles, customs and traditions, and obscenity came under the scrutiny of censors. The third prevailing theme in the realm of censorship was closely tied to the ethnic and national groups within the empire, particularly as the empire faced decline and disintegration. In regions often referred to as the provinces or dominions of the empire, national movements gained momentum, eventually leading to their separation from the empire and the emergence of independent nation-states. This transformative period witnessed a succession of conflicts and wars. In response to these developments, Ottoman authorities attempted to curtail the distribution of numerous publications within the country, encompassing works on ethnic and national history, as well as maps, as part of their efforts to maintain control over these territories.